Unlocking Research Insights for the Global Scientific Community

Background and Objective: Passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) is widely grown in tropical regions but remains under-exploited in Benin and Guinea, where it is mainly consumed fresh or processed into juice. This study aimed to identify suitable processing conditions for producing passion fruit syrup and to evaluate its quality in terms of physicochemical characteristics, sensory acceptability, preservation, and food safety.

Methods: Passion fruit juice was extracted, pasteurized, and mixed with sugar syrups prepared from 700 g (S700), 850 g (S850), or 1000 g (S1000) of sugar per litre of water. The pH, titratable acidity, density, total soluble solids (TSS), moisture, β-carotene, total sugars, and color were determined and compared with those of a commercial passion fruit syrup used as a control (ST). Sensory attributes were assessed by a consumer panel.

Results: The pH values of S700, S850, and S1000 ranged from 3.42 to 3.45, higher than that of ST (2.785). TSS values were 46.25, 64.5, and 75.5 °Brix, respectively, compared with 67.25 °Brix for ST. S1000 had the highest density (1.24 ± 0.016), β-carotene content (39.46 µg/100 g), and total sugar content (85.5 g/100 g), and was the only syrup with a TSS above 65 °Brix. Approximately 60–70% of panelists rated the color of S700, S850, and S1000 as pleasant, and S1000 was designated the best product by nearly 60% of panelists. No pathogenic contamination was detected after pasteurization, and the syrups remained stable for 6 months.

Conclusion: Good-quality passion fruit syrup can be produced from locally sourced fruits in Benin and Guinea, with S1000 being the most appreciated formulation. Further work is needed to optimize the production process and promote this value chain among local producers.

Background and Objective: Poultry litter amendments are widely used to mitigate ammonia (NH₃) volatilization, and some amendments, such as aluminum sulfate (alum), also reduce litter-soluble phosphorus (P), thereby potentially decreasing P runoff and leaching. However, the increasing cost of alum has prompted interest in alternative amendments that can simultaneously reduce NH₃ emissions and P solubility. This study evaluated the effects of several poultry litter amendments, including alum mud litter amendment (AMLA), a byproduct of alum production, and TPX, a calcium silicate nanoparticle with high P adsorption capacity, on NH₃ emissions and soluble P concentrations in poultry litter.

Methodology: A pen trial was conducted to evaluate six treatments: (1) untreated poultry litter (control), (2) alum-treated litter, (3) sodium bisulfate (SBS)-treated litter, (4) AMLA-treated litter, (5) alum plus TPX, and (6) SBS plus TPX. Cumulative NH₃ fluxes, litter-soluble P concentrations, and other relevant litter and bird health parameters were assessed.

Results: Compared with the untreated control, cumulative NH₃ fluxes were reduced by 70%, 65%, 63%, 63%, and 56% in the alum, SBS, AMLA, SBS plus TPX, and alum plus TPX treatments, respectively. At the end of the trial, alum plus TPX, alum, and AMLA reduced litter-soluble P concentrations by 63%, 56%, and 52%, respectively, relative to the control. In contrast, SBS and SBS plus TPX increased litter-soluble P concentrations by 18% and 6%, respectively, although substantially higher concentrations were observed earlier in the grow-out period. The addition of TPX had no significant effect on cumulative NH₃ emissions or litter-soluble P concentrations. Furthermore, SBS increased litter moisture and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions and was associated with poorer footpad and hock scores.

Conclusion: AMLA performed comparably to alum in reducing both NH₃ emissions and litter-soluble P concentrations, indicating its potential as an alternative poultry litter amendment. Although SBS effectively reduced NH₃ emissions, its effects on litter-soluble P, increased litter moisture and N₂O emissions, and poorer footpad and hock scores highlight potential environmental and bird welfare concerns. The addition of TPX provided no apparent additional benefit in reducing cumulative NH₃ emissions or litter-soluble P under the conditions evaluated.

Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation with fennel and dill seeds, individually or in combination, on the production performance of two Japanese quail strains, brown and black.

Methodology: The study was conducted at the College of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Mosul, using 320 one-day-old Japanese quails from two strains, brown and black. The birds were randomly allocated to four dietary treatments for 35 days, with each treatment comprising 40 birds distributed among four replicates of 10 birds each. The dietary treatments included an unsupplemented control diet, fennel seed supplementation at 0.4 g/kg feed, dill seed supplementation at 0.4 g/kg feed, and a combination of fennel and dill seeds at 0.2 g/kg feed each. Growth performance, feed consumption, feed conversion ratio, dressing percentage, and mortality were evaluated.

Results: The black strain had significantly greater live body weight at 1 day of age and at 3 and 5 weeks of age than the brown strain. Among the dietary treatments, fennel seed supplementation produced the most pronounced improvements in growth performance and significantly exceeded the other treatments. The interaction between strain and dietary supplementation indicated that fennel supplementation produced the greatest improvement in performance, followed by dill supplementation, whereas the fennel-dill combination also significantly improved performance compared with the control in both strains. The black strain and fennel-supplemented group recorded the greatest total weight gain. Feed consumption did not differ significantly between strains or among the supplemented groups, whereas the control and dill-supplemented groups exhibited improved feed conversion ratios. Dressing percentage was significantly higher in the black strain and fennel-supplemented groups. Mortality was significantly reduced by dill supplementation.

Conclusion: Dietary supplementation with fennel and dill seeds, particularly fennel alone, improved several production performance traits of Japanese quails. Fennel supplementation enhanced growth performance and dressing percentage, whereas dill supplementation was associated with reduced mortality and improved feed conversion. These findings indicate that fennel and dill seeds have potential as dietary phytogenic additives for improving production performance in Japanese quails.

Body composition of the broiler breeder hen during lay is poorly characterized and it is unknown whether purelines differ in mineral, fat and lean tissue accretion, whether dietary calcium (Ca) and non-phytate phosphorus (NPP) alter it, or whether any difference reaches their progeny. Ninety-six hens from four purelines (A–D; 24 per line, four per diet) were scanned by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry every four weeks from 21 to 51 weeks, and their progeny were scanned at hatch and 14 days. Diets supplied 2.25 to 3.25% Ca with 0.25% NPP, or 3.25% Ca with 0.40% NPP, equal to 3.08 to 4.45 g Ca and 340 or 550 mg NPP/hen/d at peak allocation. Line, diet and age each affected body mineral content, fat, lean tissue and tibia ash (p ≤ 0.0003). Line C hens had the highest mineral content (134 g; 3.8% of body mass), tibia ash (59.8%) and fat (726 g); line A the lowest mineral content (99 g; 2.9%) and tibia ash (56.9%). Mineral content in grams was lowest at 21 weeks and thereafter stable, so its proportional contribution fell from 3.8 to 2.9% as fat and lean tissue accumulated. The ranking carried into the progeny: 14-day chicks from line C dams had the highest body mineral proportion (2.72%) and those from line A dams the lowest (2.45%; p < 0.0001). Raising NPP from 340 to 550 mg/hen/d increased neither mineral content nor tibia ash. The same line ranking appears in eggshell quality and progeny mineral utilization in companion papers.

Background and Objective: The calcium (Ca) and non-phytate phosphorus (NPP) requirements of broiler breeder hens are less well characterized than those of laying hens, and whether these requirements differ among genetic lines remains unclear. This study evaluated the effects of dietary Ca and NPP intake and genetic line on reproductive performance, egg composition, and Ca and P digestibility in broiler breeder hens and their progeny.

Methodology: Hens from four purelines (A to D; 40 hens per line) were individually caged and assigned to 1 of 6 diets from housing through 50 weeks of age in a 4 × 6 factorial arrangement. Diets contained 2.25 to 3.25% Ca with 0.25% NPP, or 3.25% Ca with 0.40% NPP. At peak feed allocation, these concentrations provided 3.08 to 4.45 g Ca and either 340 or 550 mg NPP/hen/d. Reproductive performance, egg components, hatchability, and mineral digestibility were evaluated in hens, and Ca and P digestibility were subsequently evaluated in 14-day-old progeny fed a common starter diet.

Results: Genetic line affected body weight, mortality, age at first egg, egg production, egg components, hatchability, and day-old progeny weight (p < 0.05), whereas diet affected only day-old progeny weight (p = 0.002). Albumen and yolk accounted for 57.4 to 59.3% and 31.8 to 34.4% of egg weight, respectively, across genetic lines, while hatchability of fertile eggs ranged from 74.0 to 86.3% (p = 0.04); neither trait was affected by diet. Increasing dietary Ca and NPP increased excreta Ca and P concentrations (p < 0.0001) and decreased P digestibility in hens from 38.5 to 28.3% (p = 0.0131), whereas Ca digestibility was unaffected. In 14-day-old progeny fed a common starter diet, dam genetic line affected all four excreta mineral and digestibility traits (p < 0.0001). Calcium digestibility ranged from 17.4 to 48.8% among progeny from different dam lines, whereas maternal diet affected progeny P digestibility only when the maternal diet contained 0.40% NPP.

Conclusion: Dietary Ca intake as low as 3.08 g/hen/d supported reproductive performance comparable to that achieved with higher Ca intakes under the conditions of this study. Increasing NPP intake from 340 to 550 mg/hen/d did not improve hen performance or Ca digestibility and reduced P digestibility. Differences in progeny mineral utilization were primarily associated with dam genetic line rather than maternal dietary Ca and NPP, suggesting that genetic factors may play a greater role than maternal diet in determining mineral utilization by progeny.

Background and Objective: Soybean meal is a major protein source in animal nutrition, but its nutritional value may be limited by antinutritional factors and processing conditions affecting protein solubility. This study aimed to develop and apply an in vitro assay to evaluate the effects of proteolytic enzymes on protein solubility in soybean meal and to assess the potential interaction between enzymes under controlled conditions.

Methodology: Soybean meal samples were incubated with trypsin, an exogenous commercial protease (Sfericase), or their combination under standardized conditions. The assay involved controlled enzymatic hydrolysis followed by separation and quantification of the soluble protein fraction using total nitrogen analysis by the combustion (Dumas) method. Protein solubility was determined before and after enzymatic treatment.

Results: The baseline protein solubility of untreated soybean meal was 7.73%. Enzymatic treatment with trypsin or the exogenous protease increased protein solubility to 14.68% and 16.70%, respectively. The combined treatment resulted in a protein solubility of 26.69%, indicating a greater increase than that observed with either enzyme alone and suggesting a potential complementary effect between the enzymes under the conditions tested.

Conclusion: The proposed in vitro assay provides a controlled approach for screening protease efficacy and investigating enzyme interactions in feed ingredients. The method may serve as a useful tool for evaluating enzymatic strategies aimed at improving protein solubility and, potentially, protein utilization in animal feed.

Objective: The search for local and cost-effective alternatives to conventional protein sources, including roasted soybeans, soybean meal, cottonseed meal, and fish meal, remains important for improving the sustainability and profitability of poultry production in Burkina Faso. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of incorporating boiled and shelled Mucuna pruriens seeds (GMP-bd) into broiler diets on zootechnical performance, carcass characteristics, hematocrit levels, and economic profitability.

Methodology: A 49-day feeding trial was conducted using 300 one-day-old Cobb 500 broiler chicks with an average initial body weight of 40 g. The chicks were assigned to a randomized complete block design (RCBD) comprising three blocks of 100 chicks each. Each block was subdivided into four dietary treatments, with 25 chicks per treatment, receiving isoenergetic and isoproteic diets containing 0%, 2.5%, 5%, or 7.5% boiled and shelled M. pruriens seeds, respectively. The GMP-bd was incorporated as a partial substitute for roasted soybeans. Zootechnical performance, including weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, and mortality, as well as carcass characteristics, internal organs, hematocrit levels, and economic profitability, were evaluated.

Results: The incorporation of GMP-bd into the diets improved weight gain, with a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the control group and the group receiving 7.5% GMP-bd, with the latter showing greater weight gain. The inclusion of GMP-bd did not significantly affect (p > 0.05) overall feed intake, feed conversion ratio, or mortality rate. Similarly, no significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed among dietary treatments in carcass characteristics, internal organ weights, or hematocrit levels. Economic analysis showed that net profit per chicken increased with GMP-bd inclusion and was highest at the 7.5% inclusion level, reaching 748.13 FCFA per chicken.

Conclusion: Boiled and shelled Mucuna pruriens seeds can be incorporated into broiler diets at inclusion levels of up to 7.5% as a partial substitute for roasted soybeans without adversely affecting feed intake, feed conversion ratio, mortality, carcass characteristics, internal organs, or hematocrit levels. The 7.5% inclusion level was associated with improved weight gain and the highest net profit per chicken, indicating its potential as a locally available and economically viable protein resource for broiler production in Burkina Faso.

Background and Objective: The consumption of industrial culinary bouillons is widespread in West Africa, although their formulation often relies on high salt contents and the use of food additives. This study aimed to develop a culinary bouillon based on the local edible mushroom Volvariella volvacea as an alternative to industrial bouillons available in Benin.

Materials and Methods: The bouillon cube was formulated using edible mushroom powder (40%), natural spices (17.86%), salt (10.71%), starch (2.86%), and water (28.57%), and was subsequently subjected to physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory evaluations.

Results: The production process yielded 81.17%. Physicochemical analyses showed moisture, salt, protein, and ash contents of 6.41 ± 0.02%, 4.83 ± 0.096%, 19.38 ± 0.17%, and 2.15 ± 0.013%, respectively. Microbiological analyses indicated satisfactory hygienic quality of both the mushroom powder and the finished bouillon, with the absence or low levels of the main microorganisms investigated. Sensory evaluation, conducted in comparison with a commercial bouillon, showed greater acceptance of the developed product in terms of texture, aroma, taste, aftertaste, and overall acceptability, whereas its color received a slightly lower score.

Conclusion: Overall, the Volvariella volvacea-based culinary bouillon cube exhibited satisfactory physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics and represents a promising approach for valorizing locally available edible mushrooms in Benin.

Understanding the socio-demographic determinants of food purchasing behavior is essential for addressing issues related to food safety, consumption patterns, and household expenditure. This study examines the influence of selected demographic variables, family income, educational status, age, and occupation on consumer food buying decisions, with specific reference to expenditure patterns, type of food purchased (loose or packed), and place of purchase. Primary data were collected from consumers and analyzed using descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests to assess the significance of associations among variables. This study investigates the influence of socio-demographic factors, family income, educational status, age, and occupation on consumer food purchasing behavior, focusing on expenditure patterns, type of food purchased (loose or packed), and place of purchase. Primary data were collected from (200) respondents and analyzed using descriptive statistics and Chi-square (χ²) tests at a 5% significance level. Results indicate a significant association between family income and the proportion of income spent on food (χ² = 17.31), with lower-income households allocating 15–30% of income and higher-income households 16–30%, reflecting differential expenditure behavior. Educational status significantly influenced food preferences (χ² = 23.90), with lower-educated respondents favoring loose foods and higher-educated respondents preferring packed foods. Age (χ² = 7.45) and occupation (χ² = 9.60) were significantly associated with food type, while age (χ² = 25.37) and occupation (χ² = 27.60) influenced the place of purchase, highlighting differences between supermarkets, retail shops, and wholesale markets. Overall, younger, better-educated, and higher-income respondents, particularly in business or service occupations, favored packed foods and organized retail outlets, whereas older respondents and housewives preferred loose foods and traditional markets. These findings underscore the critical role of socio-economic and demographic factors in shaping food purchasing behavior and emphasize the need for targeted awareness programs and policy interventions to promote safe, informed, and healthy food consumption.

Background: Coccidiosis, caused by Eimeria species, is a major constraint on broiler production worldwide, and the emergence of drug-resistant strains necessitates the search for effective natural alternatives. Methods: This study evaluated the effectiveness of garlic (Allium sativum) extract in controlling coccidiosis and improving growth performance in naturally infected broiler chickens. A controlled experimental design was employed using 40 broilers naturally exposed to Eimeria infection under field conditions. Birds were allocated to three groups: untreated control (n=15), garlic extract-treated (50 mL/L in drinking water; n=15), and amprolium-treated (1 g/L in drinking water; n=10). Fecal oocyst counts were assessed weekly using the McMaster technique, while body weight was measured on days 21, 28, and 35. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by the Games–Howell post hoc test. Results: Both garlic and amprolium treatments significantly reduced oocyst numbers compared with the control across all weeks (p < 0.001). Differences between garlic and amprolium were statistically significant but minimal in magnitude, indicating comparable anticoccidial effectiveness as infection progressed. Growth performance was significantly affected by treatment, with garlic-treated birds exhibiting higher body weights than controls at days 21, 28, and 35 (p < 0.05), while amprolium-treated birds showed the highest weight gains overall (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Garlic extract demonstrated significant anticoccidial activity and positively influenced growth performance in broiler chickens. These findings suggest that garlic extract can serve as an effective, cost-effective natural alternative for controlling coccidiosis and enhancing productivity in broiler production systems, particularly in resource-limited settings.

Guar korma meal (GKM), a byproduct of the guar gum industry, has emerged as a potential alternative protein source in poultry nutrition, particularly in the subcontinent. This study evaluated the effects of graded inclusion levels of Guar Korma Meal (GKM), with and without mannanase enzyme supplementation, on the growth performance of broiler chickens. A total of 2,000 day-old mixed broiler chicks (Arbor Acre Plus) were allocated to eight dietary treatments in a completely randomized design with a two-way factorial arrangement (4 GKM inclusion levels × 2 enzyme levels), each with five replicates of 50 birds. Diets were formulated with GKM inclusion at 0%, 2.5%, 5%, and 7.5%, replacing soybean meal, with or without mannanase supplementation (200 g/ton). Growth performance parameters feed intake (FI), body weight (BW), feed conversion ratio (FCR), and mortality were recorded at 14, 28, and 42 days. Across the starter, grower, and finisher phases, increasing GKM inclusion up to 7.5% had no significant effect (P > 0.05) on FI, BW, FCR, or mortality. Mannanase supplementation significantly improved FI and FCR during the starter phase (P < 0.05) but had no significant effect during the grower or finisher phases. A significant GKM × mannanase interaction (P = 0.01) was observed for starter-phase FCR, indicating that enzyme response varied with GKM inclusion level. These findings demonstrate that GKM can effectively replace soybean meal at inclusion levels up to 7.5% without compromising broiler growth performance, with mannanase offering additional early-life benefits. This supports GKM as a viable, cost-effective alternative protein source for broiler diet formulation, particularly in regions facing soybean meal price volatility and import dependence.

The Nigerian poultry sub sector still struggles with inherent challenges that have long justified its non-competitiveness, especially in attaining National self-sufficiency and foreign earnings. This study analysed the production- financial efficiency and drivers of Biological Assets Turnover-BAT of Layer farm enterprises in South West Nigeria, using survey data of 185 farm enterprises, analysed with descriptive and econometric inferential tools. Results revealed that about three years farm holders' age differences exists between successive farm scale groups, at (P≤0.1), and majorities operated medium farm enterprises, with access to quality healthcare, extension services, married, and males farm-holders. Furthermore, significant variance exists between and within farm groups at 1% significance probability. Besides, although large scaled Layer enterprises had the highest revenue average, the small scaled enterprises were however most technically and financially efficient with the highest inverse BAT of N 0.052 per bird, while medium and large scaled enterprises averaged slack rate were barely marginal, viz about; 200 birds, and 10,518 birds, but 1,081 birds, for the entire population, respectively. Additionally, age, biological assets rate, output, gender, and stock diversification determined BAT among small scaled Layer enterprises; But output, gender, cooperative membership, multidimensional poverty, primary occupation, married, and biological assets rate determined BAT among medium- large scaled Layer enterprises. Consequently, empirical findings revealed that the menaces in the Layer enterprises were more of inefficiency quagmires, especially where poultry enterprises increases farm scaling capacities, hereby unveiling the massive shortages linkable to technology adoption gaps in this sector, where traditional and hybrid production practices were inherent.

Background: Broiler breeder hens begin lay at approximately 25 wk of age and produce small eggs that are frequently non-settable or that yield small chicks with reduced livability. The yolk sac (YS) and liver (LV) are the primary tissues supporting nutrient utilization during embryonic development, and hen age affects yolk size and hatchling weight. The objective was to characterize differences in gene expression and protein abundance in breeder hens and their embryos.

Methods: Cobb 500 breeder hens were artificially inseminated at 26 and 35 wk of age, and hatching eggs were collected over a 7-d period at each age. Yolk sac and LV samples were taken from embryos at embryonic day 17 (E17), and abdominal fat (AF) and LV samples were taken from the hens that produced those eggs. Forty-eight genes related to fatty acid, glucose, and amino acid metabolism were profiled, using a fold-regulation cut-off of 2.0 and P < 0.05. Selected targets were confirmed by Western blot.

Results: In the YS of embryos from 26-wk-old hens, the most over-expressed genes were PC, GPT2, and LPL, with fold increases of 75, 28, and 24. Three genes were under-expressed in the YS but over-expressed in the embryonic LV of the same embryos: FABP2, LRP2, and PKM2. In the LV of 26-wk-old hens, the most over-expressed genes were the fatty acid metabolism genes SCD, ELOVL6, and ACACA. Protein abundance confirmed greater GPT2, PC, and LPL in the YS of embryos from young hens, whereas LRP2 protein was greater in embryos from 35-wk-old hens.

Conclusion: Embryos from young breeder hens show greater expression of gluconeogenic and carbohydrate-related genes, whereas embryos from prime-aged hens show greater abundance of lipid transport proteins. These results indicate an age-related shift in fuel utilization during late incubation rather than impaired fatty acid metabolism.

Background: Patients with head and neck cancer (HNC) are at high risk of malnutrition due to tumor location and treatment-related adverse effects that impair oral intake. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) is widely used to provide long-term enteral nutritional support during treatment.

Objective: To evaluate changes in body weight and body mass index (BMI) following PEG insertion among patients with HNC receiving radiotherapy.

Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted on 100 HNC patients aged 18–60 years who underwent PEG insertion and received radiotherapy at Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Centre, Peshawar, between January 1, 2023, and January 1, 2025. Anthropometric data, including weight, height, and BMI, were collected at baseline (immediately after PEG insertion), the second follow-up, and the third follow-up. Repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) with post hoc comparisons was performed using SPSS version 25. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

Results: The mean age of participants was 46.5 ± 11.2 years. Mean body weight decreased from 60.9 ± 14.1 kg at baseline to 58.2 ± 13.9 kg and 56.9 ± 14.0 kg at the second and third follow-ups, respectively. Similarly, mean BMI declined from 22.8 ± 5.1 kg/m² to 21.7 ± 4.8 kg/m² and 21.3 ± 4.7 kg/m². Reductions in both weight and BMI from baseline to the third follow-up were statistically significant (p < 0.05).

Conclusion: Despite PEG-assisted enteral nutrition, patients with HNC experienced significant reductions in body weight and BMI during radiotherapy. These findings highlight the importance of early, individualized nutritional interventions, regular dietetic counseling, and close nutritional monitoring to minimize malnutrition and improve clinical outcomes in this high-risk population.

       

Background and Objective: Zambian indigenous chickens play a crucial role in rural livelihoods, yet their genetic potential remains largely unexplored. This study assessed the growth performance and combining abilities of five indigenous chicken strains, Naked Neck, Frizzle-feathered, Short-legged, White Spotted, and Normal Feathered, using a full diallel mating design to generate 25 genetic groups.

Methodology: Body weight (BW), average daily gain (ADG), feed intake (FI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were evaluated in purebred, crossbred, and reciprocal genetic groups. General combining ability (GCA), specific combining ability (SCA), and reciprocal effects (RE) were estimated to quantify additive, non-additive, and maternal genetic effects, respectively.

Results: Body weight differed significantly (P < 0.05) among genetic groups from hatch to 20 weeks of age. At 20 weeks, the purebred White Spotted and Naked Neck strains exhibited superior growth performance, with BW values of 2229.7 g and 2140.7 g, respectively. Among the reciprocal crosses, F×Na recorded the highest BW (approximately 2329.3 g), followed by crosses involving the White Spotted and Naked Neck strains. Feed intake did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) among genetic groups. Purebred strains recorded ADG values ranging from 10.8 to 17.9 g/day and FCR values between 2.2 and 2.7, whereas crossbred groups achieved higher ADG (>17.9 g/day) with FCR values ranging from 1.7 to 2.7. Reciprocal crosses exhibited the highest ADG (19.3 g/day) and the lowest FCR (1.0). The White Spotted pure strain (WW) showed the highest GCA estimate (128.8), followed by Naked Neck (NaNa, 72.7), whereas the Short-legged strain (SS) recorded the lowest GCA (−175.8). The Short-legged × Naked Neck (SN) cross exhibited the highest SCA estimate (236.1), followed by Naked Neck × Frizzle-feathered (NaF, 184.8) and Short-legged × White Spotted (SW, 128.1). Reciprocal effects were highest in Frizzle-feathered × Naked Neck (FNa, 195.1), White Spotted × Short-legged (WS, 192.8), and Short-legged × Frizzle-feathered (SF, 178.1).

Conclusion: Crossbred and reciprocal genetic groups consistently outperformed purebred strains, demonstrating strong heterotic responses and favorable genetic combinations for enhanced growth performance and feed efficiency. These findings highlight the potential of exploiting both additive and non-additive genetic effects in breeding programs aimed at improving productivity while supporting the conservation and sustainable utilization of Zambia's indigenous chicken genetic resources.

In Mozambique, there is still no production of typical commercial fish feed. It was in this context that an experimental feed based on Mudskipper flour, was produced under low protein conditions since there is no quality feed in order to verify the weight gain with protein less than 25% focused on family aquaculture and it was evaluated, the zootechnical performance of Tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus fed by these diets. The research was carried out in the net tanks of the School of Marine and Coastal Sciences of the Eduardo Mondlane University (ESCMC), from July 2017 to February 2018, contributing with a practical formula and with low component acquisition costs. The work consisted of two phases, namely: (i) feed production and (ii) Tilapia cultivation. A design model was established, with three treatments, TI-19%, TII-20%, and TIII-24%, with one repetition for each treatment. 90 sexually reverted Tilapia O. mossambicus fingerlings were populated with about 15 fingerlings per net tank, from the Aquapesca company breeders, with an initial average weight and length of 6.2g for TI, 6.6g for TII and 6.2g for TIII. During cultivation the fish were fed four times a day (6:00, 10:00, 14:00 and 18:00). Weekly biometrics were carried out covering 10% of the population, water quality indicator parameters were controlled, such as: dissolved oxygen, temperature and pH (twice a day, 6:30 am and 4:30 pm) and salinity (once a day) . The following zootechnical parameters were determined: growth rate (TCS), weekly growth percentage (PCS), specific growth rate (TEC), and total biomass produced (BTP). The results obtained showed statistically significant differences (p<0, 05) between the three treatments. The three treatments show results with a positive and increasing trend of increment for the growth in weight and in length, however the net tank experiments of TI-19%, TII-20% obtained the high values at the end of the experiment (18.8 g and 10.8 cm) and (21.5 g and 12.08 cm), comparing with another experiment that recorded lower growth TIII-24% (14.6 g and 9.6 cm). The results obtained in the study show that the Mudskipper meal (Periophthalmus sobrinus) meal can replace fish meal made from anchovies and sardines without compromising the result of the Tilapia's zootechnical performance.

Based on literature data it can be concluded essential oils originating from plants have anti-microbial activity and have toxic effects in poultry only when administered at very high doses. Antioxidant activity and hypocholesterolemic effects have been reported in chickens. In various studies, but not all, a growth enhancing effect of essential oils has been found. The characteristic flavor of essential oils might play role in poultry performance, but this needs to be confirmed. Essential oils may stimulate the digestion process. It appears that individual compounds of an essential oil have a wide range of activities and may act in an additive, synergistic and antagonistic fashion. The effect of essential oils in poultry may not only be confined to the microflora, but may extend to animal metabolism. Knowing the activity and effects of individual compounds is useful to formulate mixtures of compounds so as to enhance efficacy. In conclusion, dietary essential oils may be used as alternatives to antibiotics, but whether their effects on growth performance are a consequence of anti-microbial activity needs to be studied further.

The research work was conducted on "Hubbard Isa Starbro" broilers to evaluate the dynamics of probiotics relating to live weight gain, carcass yield, weight of cut up meat parts and immune response. Day old broiler chicks were divided into four groups as group A (Vaccinated probiotics fed group), B (Nonvaccinated probiotics fed group), C (Vaccinated conventional fed group) and D (Nonvaccinated conventional fed group). Groups C and D were taken as control birds fed with commercial ration and groups A and B as experimental birds were fed with commercial ration with the addition of 2gm probiotics (Protexin® Boost)/10 litres drinking water upto 6th week of age. The result evidenced the following information: (a) The live weight gains obtained were significantly (p<0.01) higher in experimental birds as compared to control ones at all levels during the period of 2nd, 4th, 5th and 6th weeks of age, both in vaccinated and nonvaccinated birds. (b) A significantly (p<0.01) higher carcass yield occurred in broiler chicks fed with the probiotics on the 2nd, 4th and 6th week of age both in vaccinated and nonvaccinated birds. The weight of leg was found significantly (p<0.01) greater for experimental birds as compared to control ones on the 2nd, 4th and 6th week of age. A significantly (p<0.01) higher breast weight in broiler chicks fed with the probiotics was observed on the 4th and 6th week of age. Analogously a significantly (p<0.05) higher breast portion weight was found in experimental birds as compared to control ones during 2nd week of age. (c) The antibody production was found significantly (p<0.01) higher in experimental birds as compared to control ones. Significant differences were also observed in the weight of spleen and bursa due to probiotics supplementation. The results of the study thus revealed that probiotics supplementation promoted significant influence on live weight gain, high carcass yield, prominent cut up meat parts and immune response.

Genetic selection of broilers for rapid growth has resulted in greater final BW and improved feed conversion efficiency in reduced time increments. However, accelerated growth rates are associated with several undesirable traits, including increased fat deposition, and higher incidence of metabolic diseases, visual anomalies, skeletal deformities, and circulatory problems. These deficiencies, as well as the associated financial losses, have led to increased interest in developing management techniques that will maximize productivity while minimizing associated problems of broilers. Light is an important parameter of poultry production. Currently, there are a wide variety of lighting programs (wavelength, intensity, and duration) and devices available to poultry producers, each possessing its own characteristics and applicability to rearing poultry. The potential for changing photoperiods to influence broiler productivity and health is receiving considerable investigation. Some lighting programs have a central purpose of slowing the early growth rate of broilers thus allowing birds to achieve physiological maturity before maximal rates of muscle mass accretion. The aim of this review is to update research on lighting programs for broiler production and to give direction for future lighting research.

Effects of an antibiotic growth promoter (flavomycin), a probiotic mixture (protexin) or a mixture of organic acids including plant extract and mineral salts (genex) on performance, intestinal microbial flora and tissue morphology have been examined in 160 day-old Ross 308 broiler chicks. Commercial corn-soybean-based broiler starter and grower diets were formulated as basal diets for control treatment. Basal diets were supplemented with a probiotic (0.1% protexin), an antibiotic growth promoter (0.1% flavomycin), an organic acids mixture (0.2% genex) or a combination of a probiotic with an organic acids mixture (0.1% protexin+0.2% genex). In total, five dietary treatments were employed in the trial. Live weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion ratio and mortality were not affected by dietary treatments throughout the experiment. However, relative weight of the small intestine of antibiotic treatment had significantly less than that of the basal diet. Intestinal microbial flora and tissue were determined at 21th and 42th days. In both periods, antibiotic or organic acids mixture treatments significantly decreased total bacteria counts. In addition to that all treatments significantly decreased gram negative bacteria counts compared to the basal diet. Probiotic treatment significantly increased ileum and jejunum villus height, whereas antibiotic treatment significantly decreased muscularis thickness compared to the basal diet.

Kefir is fermented milk only made from kefir grains and kefir cultures as no other milk culture forms. Kefir grains are the mixture of beneficial bacteria and yeast with a polysaccharide matrix. During fermentation lactic acid, CO2, ethyl alcohol and aromatic compounds that make its unique organoleptic properties are occurred. Kefir is used for the treatment or control of several diseases for many years in Russia. It is begun to consume in some areas of the world, southwestern Asia, eastern and northern Europe, North America and Japan for its nutritional and therapeutic aspects. This paper attempts to review the consumption, process, chemical and nutritional composition and the health benefits of kefir.

Objective: The study aimed to evaluate the effects of fermented-dried Azolla (Azolla pinnata) and Ipil-Ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) leaf meal supplementation on the growth performance and carcass quality of broiler chickens. The research sought to identify sustainable, locally available and cost-effective feed alternatives that could support the Philippine poultry industry’s shift toward environmentally friendly feeding practices. Materials and Methods: A total of 60-day-old broiler chicks were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments under a Completely Randomized Design for a period of 28 days. The treatments consisted of: (T₁) pure commercial feed (control), (T₂) 40 g Azolla + 40 g Ipil-Ipil/kg feed, (T₃) 80 g Azolla/kg feed and (T₄) 80 g Ipil-Ipil/kg feed. Parameters measured included feed consumption, feed conversion ratio (FCR), body weight gain, water intake, dressed weight, dressing percentage, carcass drip loss and net profit. Data were statistically analyzed to determine significant differences among treatment means. Results: Broilers supplemented with 80 g fermented-dried Azolla/kg feed exhibited the highest mean feed consumption (1.84 kg), the best FCR (1.73) and significantly greater weight gain (1.06 kg) compared to other treatment groups (p<0.05). No significant differences were observed in water intake, dressed weight, dressing percentage, or carcass drip loss among the treatments. Economic analysis indicated that birds receiving 80 g fermented-dried Azolla/kg feed achieved the highest net profit (Php 67.55 per head). Conclusion: The inclusion of fermented-dried Azolla at 80 g/kg feed improved growth performance and feed efficiency in broiler chickens without adversely affecting carcass quality. Given its local availability, high protein content and cost-effectiveness, fermented-dried Azolla presents a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative feed supplement for small-scale poultry producers in the Philippines. Further research is recommended to determine the long-term impacts and optimal inclusion levels for practical field applications.

This study was conducted to find out the multiple uses of eggshells in nutrition and medicine. Eggshells can be utilized for various purposes that minimize their effect on environmental pollution. Eggshells present healthy, balanced calcium due to its trace amounts of other minerals and is probably the best natural source of calcium. One whole medium sized eggshell makes about one teaspoon of powder, which yields about 750-800 mgs of elemental calcium plus other micro elements. Eggshell powder has been reported to increase bone mineral density in people and animals with osteoporosis. In laying hens in the late production phase, eggshell powder has been found to increase egg production and improve the quality of shells. Discarded eggshells are often used as a plant fertilizer and are effective liming sources. This is because eggshells contain calcium that raises, or neutralizes, the pH level of overly acidic soil. Chicken eggshells can be used as an alternative soil stabilizer like lime since they have the same chemical composition. Such stabilized soil can be used as subgrade materials in road construction works. Eggshell membrane consists of collagen as a component. Collagen is a type of protein, fibrous in nature that connects and supports other bodily tissues, such as skin, bone, tendons, muscles and cartilage. Collagen has been isolated mainly from bovine and swine skins and bones Collagen used in medicine, biochemical, pharmaceutical, food and cosmetics industries. After the outbreaks of bovine spongioform encephalopathy, foot and mouth disease, autoimmune and allergic reactions, restrictions on collagen uses from these sources were enforced. Eggshell membrane collagen is very low in autoimmune and allergic reactions as well as high in bio-safety and is of similar characteristics to other mammalian collagen. Eggshells/shell membranes have multiple uses in nutrition, medicine, construction and art works.

Poultry production at all scales of operation is wholly dependent on the supply of day-old chicks. Fertility and hatchability are two major parameters that highly influence the supply of day-old chicks. Fertility refers to the percentage of incubated eggs that are fertile while hatchability is the percentage of fertile eggs that hatch. It is therefore important to understand the factors that influence fertility and hatchability of eggs. For the hatchability traits, breed has little effect on hatchability of poultry eggs, although light breeds have been reported to have higher fertility and hatchability. The diet of breeder poultry should be adequate in both quality and quantity to meet the recommended levels set out in the feed standards for the category. The most influential egg parameters that influence hatchability are: weight, shell thickness and porosity, shape index (described as maximum breadth to length ratio) and the consistency of the contents. Heat stress reduces the external and internal egg qualities. Heat stress affects all phases of semen production in breeder cocks. Hatchability for small eggs is lower compared to that of medium and large eggs. There are many factors contributing to the failure of a fertile egg to hatch which include lethal genes, insufficient nutrients in the egg and exposure to conditions that do not meet the needs of the developing embryo. Breeder factors that affect hatchability include strain, health, nutrition and age of the flock, egg size, weight and quality, egg storage duration and conditions. The optimum temperature range for poultry is 12-26^oC. Fertile eggs should not be stored for more than 10-14 days, after 14 days of storage; hatchability begins to decline significantly. The position (large end up or vice versa) of egg storage influences hatchability. Eggs stored with the small end up have higher hatchability as compared to the large end up. Incubation of fertile eggs can be done naturally by a broody hen or in an incubator. The broody hen provides the fertile eggs with optimum environmental conditions (temperature, egg turning and humidity) to stimulate embryonic development until hatching. The incubator is a simulated artificial design that mimics the broody hen’s role of providing fertile eggs with optimum environmental conditions (temperature, egg turning and humidity) to stimulate embryonic development until hatching. A constant incubation temperature of 37.8^oC is the thermal homeostasis in the chick embryo and gives the best embryo development and hatchability. Mortality is seen if the temperature drops below 35.6^oC or rises above 39.4^oC for a number of hours. Egg turning during incubation is critical for successful hatching and influences hatchability. No turning of eggs during incubation results in low hatchability and delays hatch by a few days.

Background and Objectives: Leafy vegetables are perennial species that play an important role in the diet. However, very little research has been devoted to them in Côte d'Ivoire. The aim of the present study was to determine the nutritional composition of three leafy vegetables (Euphorbia hirta, Moringa oleifera and Manihot esculenta), in order to increase their nutritional value against malnutrition. Methodology: The nutritional composition of these leafy vegetables was analyzed in accordance with standard methods. Results: The results recorded for three species (Euphorbia hirta, Moringa oleifera and Manihot esculenta) were as follows: Moisture content (59.06±0.08%, 70.5±1%, 66.26±3.26%), proteins (14.41±0.02%, 26.12±0.18%, 29.09±0.11%), carbohydrates (35.43±5.30%, 14.37±1.3%, 14.89±0.01%), lipids (3.8±0.13%, 6.8±0.13%, 5.93±0.31%), dietary fibers (37.16±1.55%, 43.2±0.51%, 43.83±1.53%), ash (9.2±0.13%, 9.5±0.67%, 6.20±0.11%), polyphénols (368.66±50.75 mg EAG/ g MS, 375.5±4.78, 381±4.24 mg EAG/g MS), flavonoïdes (290.66±48.36 mg EQ/g MS, 283.78±3.9 EQ/g MS, 283±1.41 mg EQ/g MS) and energy value (193.44±1.68 kcal/100g, 283 78±3.9 kcal/100 g, 171.96±4.29 kcal/100 g, 173.75±0.01 kcal/100 g). Conclusion: Leafy vegetables have a generally high nutritional composition. Their consumption could sustainably improve the nutritional status of vulnerable groups in Côte d'Ivoire and thus malnutrition could be effectively combated. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to assess the nutritional contribution of the leafy vegetables studied in combination with other foods.

Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the health management strategies and biosecurity practices implemented in commercial layer farms in Batangas, Philippines and to identify gaps that may compromise flock health and disease prevention.

Materials and Methods: A purposive sampling approach was employed to survey 100 commercial layer farms registered with the Department of Agriculture Region IV-A, each housing 500 to >5,000 layers. Data were collected through structured questionnaires and on-site observations, covering vaccination programs, behavioral management practices, egg-handling procedures and biosecurity measures.

Results: Vaccination was universally practiced across farms, although significant variation was observed in the modes of administration and frequency of veterinarian visits. Debeaking was routinely implemented as a preventive measure against feather pecking and cannibalism and farms commonly used isolation and environmental enrichment to manage aggressive behaviors. Eggwashing practices differed widely; while most farms avoided washing due to concerns about spoilage, a smaller proportion performed pre-washing, drying and sanitizing steps consistent with national guidelines. Biosecurity measures were generally well adopted, with footbaths serving as the primary disinfection method. Nonetheless, inconsistencies were noted in disinfectant maintenance, use of personal protective equipment, waste handling and other critical procedures. Good housekeeping, restricted visitor access and disease monitoring were commonly practiced to reduce disease transmission risks.

Conclusion: The findings demonstrate considerable adherence to recommended health and biosecurity standards among commercial layer farms in Batangas. However, gaps in the consistency and quality of implementation persist. Strengthening farm-level biosecurity protocols, waste management, monitoring systems and capacitybuilding initiatives is essential to support sustainable egg production and enhance disease prevention within the province.

Background and Objective: The egg grading and size classification system used for commercial chicken breeds and hybrids is proposed for Philippine native chickens. In this regard, this study aimed to compare the egg characteristics of native breeds to egg-type, meat-type, dual-purpose and fancy-type breeds. Materials and Methods: A total of 315 eggs from 14 chicken breeds was used in this study. The size, shape, internal and external egg quality characteristics were analyzed. Egg parameters were analyzed by least square procedures to account for the effects of breed, size, grade classification and hen age. Results: Egg weight was highly correlated (p<0.01) with yolk weight (r = 0.72), albumen weight (r = 0.90) and shell weight (r = 0.71) but not related (p>0.05) to Haugh Unit. According to the size classification system the eggs were 4.1% jumbo, 7.3% extra-large, 20.3% large, 21.9% medium, 39.7% small and 6.7% peewee. Egg distribution by grade classification based on Haugh Unit was 13.3% Grade AA, 40.6% Grade A, 43.2% Grade B and 2.9% Grade C. Conclusion: Philippine native chickens (Banabang Kalabaw, Joloano, Paraoakan and Palawan Lasak), Black Silkies and White Silkies eggs were classified as small, while White Rock eggs were classified as medium. Black Australorp, Barred Plymouth Rock, New Hampshire, Rhode Island Red and Taiwan Yellow eggs were classified as large. Nagoya and White Leghorn eggs were classified as extra-large. The Philippine native chickens, Barred Plymouth Rock, New Hampshire, Taiwan Yellow and White Leghorn eggs were classified as Grade A. Eggs from White Rock, Black Silkies, White Silkies, Black Australorp, Nagoya and Rhode Island Red were classified as Grade B.

Objective: The study aimed to evaluate the effects of fermented-dried Azolla (Azolla pinnata) and Ipil-Ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) leaf meal supplementation on the growth performance and carcass quality of broiler chickens. The research sought to identify sustainable, locally available and cost-effective feed alternatives that could support the Philippine poultry industry’s shift toward environmentally friendly feeding practices. Materials and Methods: A total of 60-day-old broiler chicks were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments under a Completely Randomized Design for a period of 28 days. The treatments consisted of: (T₁) pure commercial feed (control), (T₂) 40 g Azolla + 40 g Ipil-Ipil/kg feed, (T₃) 80 g Azolla/kg feed and (T₄) 80 g Ipil-Ipil/kg feed. Parameters measured included feed consumption, feed conversion ratio (FCR), body weight gain, water intake, dressed weight, dressing percentage, carcass drip loss and net profit. Data were statistically analyzed to determine significant differences among treatment means. Results: Broilers supplemented with 80 g fermented-dried Azolla/kg feed exhibited the highest mean feed consumption (1.84 kg), the best FCR (1.73) and significantly greater weight gain (1.06 kg) compared to other treatment groups (p<0.05). No significant differences were observed in water intake, dressed weight, dressing percentage, or carcass drip loss among the treatments. Economic analysis indicated that birds receiving 80 g fermented-dried Azolla/kg feed achieved the highest net profit (Php 67.55 per head). Conclusion: The inclusion of fermented-dried Azolla at 80 g/kg feed improved growth performance and feed efficiency in broiler chickens without adversely affecting carcass quality. Given its local availability, high protein content and cost-effectiveness, fermented-dried Azolla presents a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative feed supplement for small-scale poultry producers in the Philippines. Further research is recommended to determine the long-term impacts and optimal inclusion levels for practical field applications.

The recognition of vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) is associated with history of an unrelenting search for the cause of the ancient hemorrhagic disease scurvy. Isolated in 1928, vitamin C is essential for the development and maintenance of connective tissues. It plays an important role in bone formation, wound healing and the maintenance of healthy gums. Vitamin C plays an important role in a number of metabolic functions including the activation of the B vitamin, folic acid, the conversion of cholesterol to bile acids and the conversion of the amino acid, tryptophan, to the neurotransmitter, serotonin. It is an antioxidant that protects body from free radicals` damages. It is used as therapeutic agent in many diseases and disorders. Vitamin C protects the immune system, reduces the severity of allergic reactions and helps fight off infections.

This study was conducted to find out the multiple uses of eggshells in nutrition and medicine. Eggshells can be utilized for various purposes that minimize their effect on environmental pollution. Eggshells present healthy, balanced calcium due to its trace amounts of other minerals and is probably the best natural source of calcium. One whole medium sized eggshell makes about one teaspoon of powder, which yields about 750-800 mgs of elemental calcium plus other micro elements. Eggshell powder has been reported to increase bone mineral density in people and animals with osteoporosis. In laying hens in the late production phase, eggshell powder has been found to increase egg production and improve the quality of shells. Discarded eggshells are often used as a plant fertilizer and are effective liming sources. This is because eggshells contain calcium that raises, or neutralizes, the pH level of overly acidic soil. Chicken eggshells can be used as an alternative soil stabilizer like lime since they have the same chemical composition. Such stabilized soil can be used as subgrade materials in road construction works. Eggshell membrane consists of collagen as a component. Collagen is a type of protein, fibrous in nature that connects and supports other bodily tissues, such as skin, bone, tendons, muscles and cartilage. Collagen has been isolated mainly from bovine and swine skins and bones Collagen used in medicine, biochemical, pharmaceutical, food and cosmetics industries. After the outbreaks of bovine spongioform encephalopathy, foot and mouth disease, autoimmune and allergic reactions, restrictions on collagen uses from these sources were enforced. Eggshell membrane collagen is very low in autoimmune and allergic reactions as well as high in bio-safety and is of similar characteristics to other mammalian collagen. Eggshells/shell membranes have multiple uses in nutrition, medicine, construction and art works.

Poultry production at all scales of operation is wholly dependent on the supply of day-old chicks. Fertility and hatchability are two major parameters that highly influence the supply of day-old chicks. Fertility refers to the percentage of incubated eggs that are fertile while hatchability is the percentage of fertile eggs that hatch. It is therefore important to understand the factors that influence fertility and hatchability of eggs. For the hatchability traits, breed has little effect on hatchability of poultry eggs, although light breeds have been reported to have higher fertility and hatchability. The diet of breeder poultry should be adequate in both quality and quantity to meet the recommended levels set out in the feed standards for the category. The most influential egg parameters that influence hatchability are: weight, shell thickness and porosity, shape index (described as maximum breadth to length ratio) and the consistency of the contents. Heat stress reduces the external and internal egg qualities. Heat stress affects all phases of semen production in breeder cocks. Hatchability for small eggs is lower compared to that of medium and large eggs. There are many factors contributing to the failure of a fertile egg to hatch which include lethal genes, insufficient nutrients in the egg and exposure to conditions that do not meet the needs of the developing embryo. Breeder factors that affect hatchability include strain, health, nutrition and age of the flock, egg size, weight and quality, egg storage duration and conditions. The optimum temperature range for poultry is 12-26^oC. Fertile eggs should not be stored for more than 10-14 days, after 14 days of storage; hatchability begins to decline significantly. The position (large end up or vice versa) of egg storage influences hatchability. Eggs stored with the small end up have higher hatchability as compared to the large end up. Incubation of fertile eggs can be done naturally by a broody hen or in an incubator. The broody hen provides the fertile eggs with optimum environmental conditions (temperature, egg turning and humidity) to stimulate embryonic development until hatching. The incubator is a simulated artificial design that mimics the broody hen’s role of providing fertile eggs with optimum environmental conditions (temperature, egg turning and humidity) to stimulate embryonic development until hatching. A constant incubation temperature of 37.8^oC is the thermal homeostasis in the chick embryo and gives the best embryo development and hatchability. Mortality is seen if the temperature drops below 35.6^oC or rises above 39.4^oC for a number of hours. Egg turning during incubation is critical for successful hatching and influences hatchability. No turning of eggs during incubation results in low hatchability and delays hatch by a few days.